Native American Societies

In the case of the Maya, Inca, and Aztec, association was organized around imperial authority, although the empires of the Americas would not survive the encounter. In Africa, too, in that respect were indigenous empires. Leaving aside imperial Egypt, which was link up with and swell up known to Europe before the first millennium, there were empires of Kush in the Sudan, of Ethiopia, and of Nubia (Davidson, 1966, pp. 39-41). Bernal takes the view that classical Greek civilization originated in Africa, notably with the Egyptians and Phoenicians, whom he classes not as Mediterranean/Arab peoples alone as swarthy Africans (Bernal, tk). This view has been forcefully challenged by versatile scholars in the absence of supporting archaeological evidence (Lefkowitz, 1996; Griffin, 1996). Typically, black Africa is typically associated with the continent's sub-Saharan region (Walker, 1993).

The religious environment of pre-encounter Africa was multifaceted, and form so to the present day. Davidson says that African religion was as vary "in almost as many ways as there were African peoples. . . . [P]eople living in he rain down forests of the Congo, scarcely ever seeing the sky, came to carry very diverse ideas about the origin and operation of the world from people livi

Silverberg, R. (1986). Mound builders of antediluvian patriarch America. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press.

Silverberg, R. (1963). Empires in the dust, ancient civilizations brought to light. Philadelphia: Chilton Books.

Imperial rule surfaced from the Iron Age onward and appears to have been associated with economic activity. Ghana was one imperial seat, and it had a feudal structure organized around mining and export. Ghana's empire, which lasted from AD 600 to 1600, pull "military strength from feudal levies and its financial power from the ingathering of the export trade in gold and other goods and of the minute trade in salt, copper, and the manufactures of Egypt, North Africa and Europe" (Davidson, 1964, p. 15).

The Swahili were well set up on the southeastern coast and, like the Ethiopians to the pairing, had extensive Indian Ocean trade with Arabia, India, and China, exporting gold and ivory and trade textiles, porcelain, and other goods. Other African empires of about the same plosive were Mali, Kanem-Bornu, Songhay, and Hausa in the west and among the Katanga, Bantu, and Uganda in the east and south. Ghana's empire, as well s that of the Songhay, fell to a Moroccan invasion from the north in the 1600s, closely followed by the age of European exploration. Africa as a whole never recovered from these stresses, which made it dangerous to long-term European exploitation.

The political structure of black Africa is misleadingly called tribal, according to Davidson (1964), who refers instead to communities. On the other hand, they can be called royalist in disposition, with chiefs or kings functioning as confederacy leaders. According to Labouret (1962, pp. 20-21), kings were invested with religious power in tropical Africa, giving medication by divine right, and inherited by the matrilineal line, for as long as they remained physically able. Davidson (1964, p. 13) attributes the proliferation of multiple tribes in Sub-Saharan Africa to social complications that emerged i
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